Thyroid Disorders

Thyroid disorders and pregnancy loss: a bidirectional mendelian randomization exploration.

Chen P, Zhao W, Li Y, Jia L, Fang C, Li M · BMC pregnancy and childbirth · 2025

Thyroid hormones are essential for normal pregnancy and fetal development. The relationship between thyroid disease and the risk of spontaneous abortion (SA) and recurrent spontaneous abortion (RSA) has been reported, but causality is unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether there is a causal association between thyroid disorders and SA/RSA. In this bidirectional mendelian randomization (MR) analysis, the causal effects of genetically predicted hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism on adverse pregnancy outcome including SA and RSA were explored. Statistics on thyroid disorders-associated genetic variants were obtained from the Sakaue’s genome-wide association studies (GWAS). The SA and RSA GWAS from the Laisk’s study and FinnGen cohort were used as outcome data for discovery and replication analyses, respectively. Results were pooled by meta-analysis. A reverse MR analysis was also conducted by treating SA/RSA as the exposure to further substantiate our re

Autoimmune thyroid diseases, celiac disease and gluten-free diet: a Mendelian randomisation study.

Pu YH, Long CY, Yue RS, Zhang BX, Jiang YY, Li ZH · The British journal of nutrition · 2025

Previous studies have reported co-morbidities of autoimmune thyroid disorders (AITD), including Hashimoto's disease and Graves' disease and celiac disease (CeD), as well as the possible beneficial effects of a gluten-free diet (GFD) on AITD. Nonetheless, it remains uncertain whether there is a genetic causal relationship between AITD and CeD, while the beneficial effects of a GFD are controversial. This study aims to explore the causal relationship between CeD and AITD, particularly with Hashimoto's disease, and to determine whether a GFD is beneficial for AITD. We performed a two-sample Mendelian randomisation analysis on data from the largest meta-analysis summary statistics of AITD, CeD and GFD. Genetic instrumental variables were established by pinpointing SNP that relate to corresponding factors. In assessing sensitivity and heterogeneity, we conducted examinations of MR Egger, weighted median, simple mode, weighted mode and MR Egger intercept tests. Hashimoto's disease was found

Effect of Yoga Therapy on Hypothyroidism: A Systematic Review.

Bhandari RB, Mahto PK · Annals of neurosciences · 2025 · n=35

Hypothyroidism (HT) is the most prevalent endocrine disorder, affecting approximately one in 10 out of 35 adults, with a higher prevalence in females and the elderly. This systematic review (SR) aimed to discuss the effects of yoga on markers and comorbid conditions of HT. The SR was registered with the PROSPERO (PROSPERO 2022 CRD42022312990). Google Scholar, PubMed, Cochrane, and EMBASE were searched for the relevant English language interventional studies published from 31 December 1947 to 31 December 2023 by using the keywords 'meditation OR breath regulation OR yoga OR yoga nidra AND hypothyroidism OR hypothyreosis OR underactive thyroid OR low thyroid'. Of the 4078 screened studies, eight eligible studies (three RCTs, two pilot studies, two pre-post trials, and one case study) with 421 HT patients (392 females and 29 males) and three to six-month yoga interventions were included. Two independent review authors extracted study characteristics and synthesised them descriptively. R

Effects of vitamin D supplementation on TSH and thyroid hormones: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials.

Safari S, Shojaei-Zarghani S, Molani-Gol R, Rafraf M, Malekian M · Endocrinologia, diabetes y nutricion · 2025 · n=1127

Approximately 200 million people have been diagnosed with thyroid disease worldwide. Associations between thyroid disorders and nutritional factors have been established in former studies. The Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases and Google Scholar were searched without date restriction until June 2023 by using relevant keywords. All original articles written in English that studied the effects of vitamin D supplementation on TSH and thyroid hormones were eligible for the present review. The present review included a total of 16 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with 1127 participants (intervention group, 630; control group, 497). Based on the findings made, vitamin D supplementation had no significant effects on serum TSH levels in 9 cases (56.2%) reported in the trials. However, TSH levels were elevated in 4 studies (26.6%) and low in 3 (18.7%) cases after vitamin D administration. Four cases reported in 6 RCTs and 4 cases reported in 5 trials indicated no significant eff

Bisphenol A exposure and thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy: A systematic review.

Zhu Y, Liu K, Guo J, Yang J, Su Y · Reproductive toxicology (Elmsford, N.Y.) · 2024

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a phenolic chemical that has been found to be associated with human health outcomes. It is one of the risk factors for thyroid function. Pregnancy is a vulnerable window for thyroid problems, because of the fluctuations in hormone levels. This review aimed to evaluate the association between BPA exposure and thyroid function during pregnancy. We conducted a comprehensive search of relevant databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library, for original studies published in English that reported data on BPA levels and thyroid-related hormone levels in pregnant women. We used the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) to assess the methodological quality of the studies and the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) method to evaluate the quality of evidence. In total, 11 studies involving 6526 individuals were included in this systematic review. These studies explored fluctuations in thyroid-related hormon

Updates on the Association Between Vitiligo and Thyroid Diseases: A Systematic Review.

Abuhalimeh RM, Alshmrani LS, Abdullah N, Alqahtani AMH, AlQarni SD, Aljuaid MM · Cureus · 2024 · n=230

The main objective of this study is to estimate the prevalence of thyroid diseases in patients with vitiligo and investigate the potential shared autoimmune mechanisms underlying the co-occurrence of vitiligo and thyroid diseases. To locate research that met the inclusion criteria, a thorough computerized search of relevant databases was carried out. A comprehensive search was carried out on PubMed, SCOPUS, Science Direct, and Web of Science to locate relevant material. Our data included 13 trials with 82,230 participants, and 40,116 (48.8%) of them were males. The prevalence of thyroid disorders ranged from 3.2% to 32.1%, with a total prevalence of 2,906 (3.5%). Vitiligo patients are more likely to have a number of immunological comorbidities, underscoring the serious effects of the illness on overall health, especially thyroid disorders. The correlation between vitiligo and positive thyroid peroxidase antibodies, hypothyroidism, and autoimmune thyroiditis is notably high. We found a

Iodine Nutrition in Pregnancy and Lactation: A Review

Endocrine Society

This review provides comprehensive guidance on optimal iodine nutrition during pregnancy and lactation. It addresses the importance of adequate iodine intake for maternal and fetal health, and offers recommendations for supplementation when necessary.

Effect of Vitamin D Supplementation on Graves' Disease: The DAGMAR Trial.

Grove-Laugesen D, Ebbehoj E, Watt T, Riis AL, Østergård T, Bruun BJ · Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association · 2023

Objective: Treatment options in Graves' disease (GD) are limited and do not target the underlying autoimmunity, and relapse rates following a course of antithyroid drug (ATD) reach 50%. Previous research has shown promising results for a role of vitamin D in GD. We aimed to investigate whether vitamin D reduces failure to enter and sustain remission in patients with GD treated with ATD. Design: A multicenter, double-blinded, randomized placebo-controlled trial comparing vitamin D 70 mcg once daily (2800 IU) or placebo. The intervention was given first as add-on to ATD treatment, maximally 24 months, and then for 12 months after ATD cessation. Inclusion period was from 2015 to 2017 and study completion by December 2020. Patients included were adults with a first-time diagnosis of GD treated with ATD. Exclusion criteria included pregnancy and glucocorticoid treatment. The primary endpoint was failure to enter and sustain remission defined as relapse of hyperthyroidism within 12 months af

The Influence of Reducing Diets on Changes in Thyroid Parameters in Women Suffering from Obesity and Hashimoto's Disease.

Ostrowska L, Gier D, Zyśk B · Nutrients · 2021 · n=50

Hashimoto's disease is listed among the most common endocrine causes of obesity. As treatment of obesity in women with Hashimoto's disease is frequently unsuccessful, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of two different reducing diets and their influence on changes in thyroid parameters in female patients. A six-month observational/interventional study was performed on 100 women aged 18-65 years, previously diagnosed with Hashimoto's disease and obesity and receiving L-thyroxine. The women were randomly assigned to the test group (group A, n = 50) following elimination/reducing diets, and the control group (group B, n = 50) following reducing diets with the same caloric content (without elimination). Anthropometric and thyroid parameters were evaluated at the beginning, after 3 months and after 6 months of treatment. In both groups a significant decrease in BMI and body fat percentage was achieved, but in test group A the decrease in BMI and body fat percentage was

The relation between thyroid dysregulation and impaired cognition/behaviour: An integrative review.

Eslami-Amirabadi M, Sajjadi SA · Journal of neuroendocrinology · 2021

Despite decades of research on the relation between thyroid diseases and cognition, the nature of this relationship remains elusive. An increasing prevalence of cognitive impairment and thyroid dysfunction has been consistently observed with ageing. Also, there appears to be an association between thyroid disorders and cognitive decline. Given the increasing global burden of dementia, elucidating the relationship between thyroid disorders as a potentially modifiable risk factor of cognitive impairment was the main goal of this review. We summarise the current literature examining the relationship between thyroid hormonal dysregulation and cognition or behaviour. We present the available imaging and pathological findings related to structural and functional brain changes related to thyroid hormonal dysregulation. We also propose potential mechanisms of interaction between thyroid hormones, autoantibodies and cognition/behaviour. Effects of gender, ethnicity and environmental factors are

Vitamin D as a central modulator of thyroid diseases: mechanisms and clinical implications.

Cheng K, Hu Y, Li Y, Zhang Y, Wang J, Zhang C · Frontiers in immunology · 2026

Thyroid diseases are common endocrine disorders, with the incidence of thyroid cancer and autoimmune thyroid diseases rising worldwide. Vitamin D, a multifunctional steroid hormone, primarily regulates bone metabolism and calcium-phosphorus homeostasis. However, recent evidence increasingly supports the hypothesis that vitamin D plays a central role in the onset and progression of thyroid disorders, including both autoimmune and non-autoimmune conditions. In the present review, we summarize the correlation between vitamin D and thyroid disorders, elucidate the anticancer and immunoregulatory mechanisms of vitamin D in thyroid diseases, and explore its role in modulating gut microbiota. Additionally, we examine the applications in clinical settings of the use of vitamin D supplements in thyroid disorders, such as a preventive measure against cancer development and progression. Clarifying the mechanisms of vitamin D action in the development and progression of thyroid disease will suppor

The Role of Vitamin D in Autoimmune Thyroid Diseases: From Immunomodulation to Clinical Implications.

Bendotti G, Mele C, Costantini L, Ragni A, Leporati P, Biamonte E · Nutrients · 2026

Vitamin D is involved in immune regulation through effects on innate and adaptive immune responses mediated by vitamin D receptor activation within immune cells. Experimental and translational studies support its role in promoting regulatory T-cell activity, modulating Th1/Th17 responses, and influencing autoantibody production. At the population level, low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations are consistently associated with an increased risk of autoimmune diseases, including autoimmune thyroid disorders such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) and Graves' disease (GD), suggesting a potential preventive association. In contrast, clinical evidence from interventional studies in patients with established disease is heterogeneous. Although vitamin D supplementation has been associated with reductions in thyroid autoantibody titers in some studies-particularly in patients with HT and baseline vitamin D deficiency-consistent effects on thyroid function, disease progression, or relapse prev

Endocrine Comorbidities in Fibromyalgia.

Magen E, Tolkin L, Aamar S, Magen I, Merzon E, Green I · Clinical endocrinology · 2026 · n=232

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a chronic pain syndrome increasingly linked to immune and endocrine dysfunction. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of endocrine comorbidities in FM patients compared to matched controls using a large healthcare database. A population-based case-control study was conducted using data from Leumit Health Services, Israel. The cohort included 9,232 adults diagnosed with FM according to ACR criteria, matched by age and sex to 46,160 control subjects. Endocrine disorders were identified via ICD-9 codes. Statistical analyses included Student's t-test or Mann-Whitney U test for continuous variables, Pearson's chi-squared or Fisher's exact test for categorical variables, and multivariable logistic regression adjusting for age, sex, and BMI. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Both statistical significance and effect sizes are reported to facilitate assessment of clinical relevance. FM patients showed a significantly higher preva

Selenium

NIH ODS

This fact sheet for health professionals provides comprehensive information on selenium, including its function, intake recommendations, deficiency, toxicity, and dietary sources, with a section on thyroid function.

Iron Fact Sheet for Health Professionals

NIH Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS)

This fact sheet from the NIH ODS provides comprehensive, evidence-based information on iron, including its functions, recommended intakes, sources, deficiency, and toxicity. It serves as a reliable reference for healthcare professionals.

Thyroid Diseases

MedlinePlus

MedlinePlus provides an overview of various thyroid conditions, including symptoms, causes, diagnosis, and treatment options, written for a general audience.

Safety and Efficacy of Iodine Supplementation During Pregnancy With and Without Selenium Co-administration: Randomized Controlled Trial

n=300 · NCT03377218 · UNKNOWN · UNKNOWN

In 1994, the WHO and UNICEF Joint Committee on Health Policy recommended Universal Salt Iodization as a safe, cost-effective and sustainable strategy to ensure sufficient intake of iodine by all individuals. However, it is still absent in Latvia. A recent countrywide study in 2013 shows iodine deficiency among pregnant women in Latvia: 81 % of pregnant women had UIC levels below the WHO recommended range of 150-250 mcg/g Cr. Because mild to moderate iodine deficiency during pregnancy can adversely affect fetal brain development, WHO-UNICEF and ICCIDD advise an increase in the recommended daily dosage of iodine to 250 mcg/day for pregnant women and breastfeeding women and 150 mcg/day for women in the preconception period. Data from a survey of the Latvian population indicate that approximately 100 mcg of iodine per day is consumed through foods and iodized salt. To meet the increased iodine requirement in pregnancy, pregnant women should take a supplement containing 150 mcg of iodine daily from the earliest time possible. A sudden increase in iodine intake in an iodine-deficient population may increase thyroid autoimmunity. It is evident that thyroid disease has multiple adverse effects during pregnancy and in the developing fetus especially in women with elevated serum anti-thyroid antibody titers. Studies have considered supplementing with selenium to reduce the risk of auto-immune thyroiditis/post-partum autoimmune thyroid disease. Of the 11 trials of selenium supplementation in patients with autoimmune thyroiditis, 7 have shown benefit with treatment for 6 months or longer. Aim of study is to approve that 150 mcg of iodine daily improves iodine status in pregnant women and iodine 150 mcg in combination with selenium 100 mcg daily reduce risk of thyroid autoimmunity. Hypothesis of study is that 150 mcg iodine daily during pregnancy improves iodine status. Iodine in combination with selenium is less associated with thyroid autoimmunity. Study design: Pregnant women are randomized for either 150 mcg iodine intake daily or 150 mcg iodine combined with 100 mcg selenium daily. Interventional group is compared with controls without particular iodine supplementation. Participants are asked to complete a questionnaire on dietary habits concerning iodine. Thyroid function (thyroid-stimulating hormone, free thyroxine) and thyroperoxidase antibodies (TPO-Ab) and urinary iodine are measured during first, second and third trimester of pregnancy and week 8 after delivery in both, intervention and control group.

Randomized Open Clinical Study to Evaluate the Efficacy of Selenium Plus Methimazole for Treatment of Graves' Hyperthyroidism

n=30 · NCT02727738 · COMPLETED · COMPLETED

Evaluation of the efficacy of the combined treatment (methimazole plus selenium) in the control of hyperthyroidism as compared to methimazole alone in 30 Graves' disease (GD) untreated patients.

Use of Myo-inositol and Selenium in Patients with Indeterminate Thyroid Nodules (TIR3A)

n=30 · NCT06736015 · RECRUITING · RECRUITING

Thyroid nodules present a variable risk of malignancy depending on the cytological result obtained from the ultrasound-assisted thyroid fine needle aspiration biopsy. According to the Italian Cytology classification SIAPEC-IAP 2014, the TIR3A nodules are indeterminate nodules with a risk of malignancy lower than 10%. Clinical and instrumental follow-up is recommended in these cases, including repetition of the fine needle aspiration. A study have demonstrate the effect of a six-month treatment with a supplement containing myo-inositol and selenium on the size and elasticity of benign thyroid nodules. Our hypothesis is that the use of this supplement can determine a reduction in the size and consistency of the nodule assessed through ultrasound and elastosonography also in cytologically indeterminate (TIR3A) nodules and that treatment can reduce the cellular proliferation of these nodules assessed by immunocytochemistry. Therefore, we design a prospective randomized pilot study to assess efficacy and safety of myo-inositol and selenium in TIR3a thyroid nosules, comparing treated and untreated patients.

Cochrane Library: Thyroid Disorders

Cochrane

The Cochrane Library provides high-quality, independent evidence to inform healthcare decision-making, offering systematic reviews on interventions for various thyroid disorders.